Iranian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences

Iranian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences

Protective Effect of Safranal, a Constituent of Crocus sativus, on Quinolinic Acid-induced Oxidative Damage in Rat Hippocampus

Document Type : Original Article

Authors
Hamid Reza Sadeghnia 1
Mina Kamkar 2
Elham Assadpour 2
Mohammad Taher Boroushaki 1
Ahmad Ghorbani 3
1 1Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran 2Pharmacological Research Center of Medicinal Plants, School of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
2 1Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
3 2Pharmacological Research Center of Medicinal Plants, School of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
10.22038/ijbms.2013.251
Abstract
Objective(s): Quinolinic acid (QA)-mediated excitotoxicity has been widely used as a model for studying neurodegenerative disorders. Recent studies suggested that saffron (Crocus sativus) or its active metabolite, i.e. safranal, exerts pharmacological actions on central nervous system including anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, and neuroprotective properties. The present study aimed to investigate the effect safranal pretreatment on QA-induced oxidative damage in rat hippocampus.
Materials and Methods: Under anesthesia, a guide cannula was stereotaxically inserted into left ventral hippocampus of rats. The rats were then given either saline or safranal (72.75, 145.5, and 291 mg/kg, IP) 30 min before administration of QA (300 nmol, intrahippocampal injection). The markers of oxidative stress including thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS, as an index of lipid preoxidation), total sulfhydryl groups, antioxidant capacity of hippocampus (using FRAP assay), and oxidative DNA damage (%tail DNA, using comet assay) were measured in hippocampus.
Results: The QA induced a significant increase in TBARS levels and %tail DNA and remarkable decrease in antioxidant power (FRAP value) and total sulfhydryl content of hippocampus, in comparison with control animals. Systemic administration of safranal (291 mg/kg, IP), effectively and dose-dependently decreased the QA-induced lipid peroxidation (P<0.001) and oxidative DNA damage (P<0.001). Safranal also prevented the decrease of hippocampal thiol redox and antioxidant status (P<0.001) produced by QA.
Conclusion: Safranal have protective effects on different markers of oxidative damage in hippocampal tissue following QA administration. Our findings might raise a possibility of potential therapeutic application of safranal for preventing and treating neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease.
Keywords
Crocus sativus
Hippocampus
Neurodegenerative disorders
Oxidative stress
Quinolinic acid
Safranal
  1. Gilgun-Sherki Y, Melamed E, Offen D. Oxidative stress induced-neurodegenerative diseases: the need for antioxidants that penetrate the blood brain barrier. Neuropharmacol 2001; 40:959-975.
  2. Lau A, Tymianski M. Glutamate receptors, neurotoxicity and neurodegeneration. Eur J Physiol  2010; 460:525-542.
  3. Heyes MP, Saito K, Crowley JS, Davis LE, Demitrack MA, Der M, et al. Quinolinic acid and kynurenine pathway metabolism in inflammatory and non-inflammatory neurological disease. Brain 1992; 115:1249-1273.
  4. Myint AM. Kynurenines: from the perspective of major psychiatric disorders. FEBS J 2012; 279:1375-1385.
  5. Stone TW. Neuropharmacology of quinolinic and kynurenic acids. Pharmacol Rev 1993; 45:309-379.
  6. Zadori D, Klivenyi P, Vamos E, Fulop F,  Toldi J, Vecsei L. Kynurenines in chronic neurodegenerative disorders: future therapeutic strategies. J Neural Transm 2009; 116:1403-1409.
  7. Chen Y, Guillemin GJ. Kynurenine pathway metabolites in humans: disease and healthy states. Int J Tryptophan Res 2009; 2:1-19.
  8. Pérez-De La Cruz V, Carrillo-Mora P, Santamaría A. Quinolinic Acid, an endogenous molecule combining excitotoxicity, oxidative stress and other toxic mechanisms. Int J Tryptophan Res 2012; 5:1-8.
  9. Sas K, Robotka H, Toldi J, Vécsei L. Mitochondria, metabolic disturbances, oxidative stress and the kynurenine system, with focus on neurodegenerative disorders. J Neurol Sci 2007; 257:221-39.
  10. Tavares RG, Tasca CI, Santos CE, Alves LB, Porciúncula LO, Emanuelli T, et al. Quinolinic acid stimulates synaptosomal glutamate release and inhibits glutamate uptake into astrocytes. Neurochem Int 2002; 40:621-627.
  11. Tavares RG, Schmidt AP, Abud J, Tasca CI, Souza DO. In vivo quinolinic acid increases synaptosomal glutamate release in rats: reversal by guanosine. Neurochem Res 2005; 30:439-444.
  12. Vezzani A, Forloni GL, Serafini R, Rizzi M, Samanin R. Neurodegenerative effects induced by chronic infusion of quinolinic acid in rat striatum and hippocampus. Eur J Neurosci 1991; 3:40-46.
  13.  Dairam A, Chetty P, Daya S. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents, tolmetin and sulindac, attenuate oxidative stress in rat brain homogenate and reduce quinolinic acid-induced neurodegeneration in rat hippocampal neurons. Metab Brain Dis  2006; 2:221-233.
  14.  Tarantilis PA, Tsoupras G, Polissiou M. Determination of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) components in crude plant extract using high performance liquid chromatography- UV-visible photodiode-array detection-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 1995; 699:107-118.
  15.  Assimopoulou AN, Sinakos Z, Papageorgiou VP. Radical scavenging activity of Crocus sativus L. extract and its bioactive constituents. Phytother Res  2005; 19:997-1000.
  16.  Amin B, Hosseinzadeh H. Evaluation of aqueous and ethanolic extracts of saffron, Crocus sativus L., and its constituents, safranal and crocin in allodynia and hyperalgesia induced by chronic constriction injury model of neuropathic pain in rats. Fitoterapia 2012; 83:888-895.
  17.  Hosseinzadeh H, Shariaty V. Anti-nociceptive effect of safranal, a constituent of Crocus sativus (saffron), in mice. Pharmacologyonline 2007; 2:498-503.
  18.  Fukui H, Toyoshima K, Komaki R. Psychological and neuroendocrinological effects of odor of saffron (Crocus sativus). Phytomedicine 2011; 18:726-730.
  19.  Hosseinzadeh H, Noraei NB. Anxiolytic and hypnotic effect of Crocus sativus aqueous extract and its constituents, crocin and safranal, in mice. Phytother Res 2009; 23:768-774.
  20.  Liu Z, Xu XH, Liu TY, Hong ZY, Urade Y, Huang ZL, et al. Safranal enhances Non-rapid eye movement sleep in pentobarbital-treated mice. CNS Neurosci Ther  2012; 18:623-630.
  21.  Hosseinzadeh H, Sadeghnia HR. Protective effect of safranal on pentylenetetrazol-induced seizures in the rat: involvement of GABAergic and opioids systems. Phytomedicine 2007; 14:256-262.
  22.  Hosseinzadeh H, Sadeghnia HR. Safranal, a constituent of Crocus sativus (saffron), attenuated cerebral ischemia induced oxidative damage in rat hippocampus. J Pharm Pharm Sci  2005; 8:394-399.
  23.  Karimi GR, Hosseinzadeh H, Khalegh Panah P. Study of antidepressant effect of aqueous and ethanolic extract of Crocus sativus in mice. Iran J Basic Med Sic 2001; 4:11-15.
  24.  Papandreou MA, Tsachaki M, Efthimiopoulos S, Cordopatis P, Lamari FN, Margarity M. Memory enhancing effects of saffron in aged mice are correlated with antioxidant protection. Behav Brain Res 2011; 219:197-204.
  25.  Hooshmandi Z, Rohani AH, Eidi A, Fatahi Z, Golmanesh L, Sahraei H. Reduction of metabolic and behavioral signs of acute stress in male Wistar rats by saffron water extract and its constituent safranal. Pharm Biol 2011; 49:947-954.
  26.  Rezaee R, Hosseinzadeh H. Safranal: from an aromatic natural product to a rewarding pharmacological agent. Iran J Basic Med Sci  2013; 16:12-26.
  27.  Paxions G, Watson C. The Rat Brain. San Diego : Academic Press;1988.
  28.  Schwarcz R, Brush GS, Foster AC, French ED. Seizure activity and lesions after intrahippocampal quinolinic acid injection. Exp Neurol 1984; 84:1-17.
  29.  Benzie IFF, Strain J. The ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP) as a measure of antioxidant power: The FRAP assay. Anal Biochem 1996; 239:70-76.
  30.  Ellman G. Tissue sulfhydryl groups. Arch Biochem Biophys 1959; 82:70-77.
  31.  Buege JA, Aust SD. Microsomal lipid peroxidation. Method Enzymol 1978; 53:302-310.
  32.  Silva JP, Areias FM, Proença FM, Coutinho OP. Oxidative stress protection by newly synthesized nitrogen compounds with pharmacological potential. Life Sci 2006; 78:1256-1267.
  33.  Hosseinzadeh H, Sadeghnia HR. Effect of safranal, a constituent of Crocus sativus (saffron), on methyl methanesulfonate (MMS)-induced DNA damage in mouse organs: an alkaline single-cell gel electrophoresis (comet) assay. DNA Cell Biol  2007; 26:841-846.
  34.  da Rocha MD, Viegas FP, Campos HC, Nicastro PC, Fossaluzza PC, Fraga CA, et al. The role of natural products in the discovery of new drug candidates for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders II: Alzheimer's disease. CNS Neurol Disord Drug Targets  2011; 10:251-270.
  35.  Colle D, Hartwig JM, Soares FA, Farina M. Probucol modulates oxidative stress and excitotoxicity in Huntington's disease models       in vitro. Brain Res Bull 2012; 87:397-405.
  36.  Kalonia H, Mishra J, Kumar A. Targeting neuro-inflammatory cytokines and oxidative Stress by minocycline attenuates quinolinic-acid-induced Huntington's disease-like symptoms in rats. Neurotox Res 2012; 22:310-320.
  37.  Leipnitz G, Schumacher C, Scussiato K, Dalcin KB, Wannmacher CM, Wyse ATD, et al. Quinolinic acid reduces the antioxidant defenses in cerebral cortex of young rats. Int J Dev Neurosci  2005; 23:695-701.
  38.  Dizdaroglu M, Jaruga P. Mechanisms of free radical-induced damage to DNA. Free Radic Res  2012; 46:382-419.
  39.  Reynolds A, Laurie C, Mosley RL, Gendelman HE. Oxidative stress and the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders. Int Rev Neurobiol  2007; 82:297-325.
  40.  Ganzella M, Jardim FM, Boeck CR, Vendite D. Time course of oxidative events in the hippocampus following intracerebroventricular infusion of quinolinic acid in mice. Neurosci Res  2006; 55:397-402.
  41.  Pláteník J, Stopka P, Vejrazka M, Stípek S. Quinolinic acid-iron(ii) complexes: slow autoxidation, but enhanced hydroxyl radical production in the Fenton reaction. Free Radic Res 2001; 34:445-459.
  42.  Halliwell B. Oxidative stress and neurodegeneration: where are we now? J Neurochem 2006; 97:1634-1658.
  43.  Hariri AT, Moallem SA, Mahmoudi M, Hosseinzadeh H. The effect of crocin and safranal, constituents of saffron, against subacute effect          of diazinon on hematological and genotoxicity indices in rats. Phytomedicine 2011; 18:499-504.
  44.  Bharti S, Golechha M, Kumari S,               Siddiqui KM, Arya DS. Akt/GSK-3β/eNOS phosphorylation arbitrates safranal-induced myocardial protection against ischemia-reperfusion injury in rats. Eur J Nutr  2011; 51:719-727.
  45.  Hosseinzadeh H, Sadeghnia HR, Rahimi A. Effect of safranal on extracellular hippocampal levels of glutamate and aspartate during kainic acid treatment in anesthetized rats. Planta Med  2008; 74:1441-1445.
  46.  Brickell KL, Nicholson LFB, Waldvogel HJ, Faull RLM. Chemical and anatomical changes in the striatum and substantia nigra following quinolinic acid lesions in the striatum of the rat: a detailed time course of the cellular and GABAA receptor changes. J Chem Neuroanat 1999; 17:75-97.
  47.  Santamaría A, Salvatierra-Sánchez R, Vázquez-Román B, Santiago-López D, Villeda-Hernández J, Galván-Arzate S, et al. Protective effects of the antioxidant selenium on quinolinic acid-induced neurotoxicity in rats: in vitro and       in vivo studies. J Neurochem 2003; 86:479-488.
  48.  Ryu JK, Choi HB, McLarnona JG. Peripheral benzodiazepine receptor ligand PK11195 reduces microglial activation and neuronal death in quinolinic acid-injected rat striatum. Neurobiol Disease 2005; 20:550-561.
  49.  Ganzella M, Faraco RB, Almeida RF, Fernandes VF, Souza DO. Intracerebroventricular administration of inosine is anticonvulsant against quinolinic acid-induced seizures in mice: An effect independent of benzodiazepine and adenosine receptors. Pharmacol Biochem Behavior 2011; 100:271-274.
  50.  Sadeghnia HR, Cortez MA, Liu D, Hosseinzadeh H, Snead OC. Antiabsence effects of safranal in acute experimental seizure models: EEG and autoradiography. J Pharm Pharm Sci 2008; 11:1-14.
  51.  Iadecola C, Anrather J. The immunology of stroke: from mechanisms to translation. Nat Med 2011; 17:796-808.
  52.  Rogers J. Inflammation as a pathogenic mechanism in Alzheimer’s disease. Drug Res 1995; 45:439-442.
  53.  Braidy N, Grant R, Adams S, Brew BJ, Guillemin GJ. Mechanism for quinolinic acid cytotoxicity in human astrocytes and neurons. Neurotox Res 2009; 16:77-86.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  1. Gilgun-Sherki Y, Melamed E, Offen D. Oxidative stress induced-neurodegenerative diseases: the need for antioxidants that penetrate the blood brain barrier. Neuropharmacol 2001; 40:959-975.
  2. Lau A, Tymianski M. Glutamate receptors, neurotoxicity and neurodegeneration. Eur J Physiol  2010; 460:525-542.
  3. Heyes MP, Saito K, Crowley JS, Davis LE, Demitrack MA, Der M, et al. Quinolinic acid and kynurenine pathway metabolism in inflammatory and non-inflammatory neurological disease. Brain 1992; 115:1249-1273.
  4. Myint AM. Kynurenines: from the perspective of major psychiatric disorders. FEBS J 2012; 279:1375-1385.
  5. Stone TW. Neuropharmacology of quinolinic and kynurenic acids. Pharmacol Rev 1993; 45:309-379.
  6. Zadori D, Klivenyi P, Vamos E, Fulop F,  Toldi J, Vecsei L. Kynurenines in chronic neurodegenerative disorders: future therapeutic strategies. J Neural Transm 2009; 116:1403-1409.
  7. Chen Y, Guillemin GJ. Kynurenine pathway metabolites in humans: disease and healthy states. Int J Tryptophan Res 2009; 2:1-19.
  8. Pérez-De La Cruz V, Carrillo-Mora P, Santamaría A. Quinolinic Acid, an endogenous molecule combining excitotoxicity, oxidative stress and other toxic mechanisms. Int J Tryptophan Res 2012; 5:1-8.
  9. Sas K, Robotka H, Toldi J, Vécsei L. Mitochondria, metabolic disturbances, oxidative stress and the kynurenine system, with focus on neurodegenerative disorders. J Neurol Sci 2007; 257:221-39.
  10. Tavares RG, Tasca CI, Santos CE, Alves LB, Porciúncula LO, Emanuelli T, et al. Quinolinic acid stimulates synaptosomal glutamate release and inhibits glutamate uptake into astrocytes. Neurochem Int 2002; 40:621-627.
  11. Tavares RG, Schmidt AP, Abud J, Tasca CI, Souza DO. In vivo quinolinic acid increases synaptosomal glutamate release in rats: reversal by guanosine. Neurochem Res 2005; 30:439-444.
  12. Vezzani A, Forloni GL, Serafini R, Rizzi M, Samanin R. Neurodegenerative effects induced by chronic infusion of quinolinic acid in rat striatum and hippocampus. Eur J Neurosci 1991; 3:40-46.
  13.  Dairam A, Chetty P, Daya S. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents, tolmetin and sulindac, attenuate oxidative stress in rat brain homogenate and reduce quinolinic acid-induced neurodegeneration in rat hippocampal neurons. Metab Brain Dis  2006; 2:221-233.
  14.  Tarantilis PA, Tsoupras G, Polissiou M. Determination of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) components in crude plant extract using high performance liquid chromatography- UV-visible photodiode-array detection-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 1995; 699:107-118.
  15.  Assimopoulou AN, Sinakos Z, Papageorgiou VP. Radical scavenging activity of Crocus sativus L. extract and its bioactive constituents. Phytother Res  2005; 19:997-1000.
  16.  Amin B, Hosseinzadeh H. Evaluation of aqueous and ethanolic extracts of saffron, Crocus sativus L., and its constituents, safranal and crocin in allodynia and hyperalgesia induced by chronic constriction injury model of neuropathic pain in rats. Fitoterapia 2012; 83:888-895.
  17.  Hosseinzadeh H, Shariaty V. Anti-nociceptive effect of safranal, a constituent of Crocus sativus (saffron), in mice. Pharmacologyonline 2007; 2:498-503.
  18.  Fukui H, Toyoshima K, Komaki R. Psychological and neuroendocrinological effects of odor of saffron (Crocus sativus). Phytomedicine 2011; 18:726-730.
  19.  Hosseinzadeh H, Noraei NB. Anxiolytic and hypnotic effect of Crocus sativus aqueous extract and its constituents, crocin and safranal, in mice. Phytother Res 2009; 23:768-774.
  20.  Liu Z, Xu XH, Liu TY, Hong ZY, Urade Y, Huang ZL, et al. Safranal enhances Non-rapid eye movement sleep in pentobarbital-treated mice. CNS Neurosci Ther  2012; 18:623-630.
  21.  Hosseinzadeh H, Sadeghnia HR. Protective effect of safranal on pentylenetetrazol-induced seizures in the rat: involvement of GABAergic and opioids systems. Phytomedicine 2007; 14:256-262.
  22.  Hosseinzadeh H, Sadeghnia HR. Safranal, a constituent of Crocus sativus (saffron), attenuated cerebral ischemia induced oxidative damage in rat hippocampus. J Pharm Pharm Sci  2005; 8:394-399.
  23.  Karimi GR, Hosseinzadeh H, Khalegh Panah P. Study of antidepressant effect of aqueous and ethanolic extract of Crocus sativus in mice. Iran J Basic Med Sic 2001; 4:11-15.
  24.  Papandreou MA, Tsachaki M, Efthimiopoulos S, Cordopatis P, Lamari FN, Margarity M. Memory enhancing effects of saffron in aged mice are correlated with antioxidant protection. Behav Brain Res 2011; 219:197-204.
  25.  Hooshmandi Z, Rohani AH, Eidi A, Fatahi Z, Golmanesh L, Sahraei H. Reduction of metabolic and behavioral signs of acute stress in male Wistar rats by saffron water extract and its constituent safranal. Pharm Biol 2011; 49:947-954.
  26.  Rezaee R, Hosseinzadeh H. Safranal: from an aromatic natural product to a rewarding pharmacological agent. Iran J Basic Med Sci  2013; 16:12-26.
  27.  Paxions G, Watson C. The Rat Brain. San Diego : Academic Press;1988.
  28.  Schwarcz R, Brush GS, Foster AC, French ED. Seizure activity and lesions after intrahippocampal quinolinic acid injection. Exp Neurol 1984; 84:1-17.
  29.  Benzie IFF, Strain J. The ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP) as a measure of antioxidant power: The FRAP assay. Anal Biochem 1996; 239:70-76.
  30.  Ellman G. Tissue sulfhydryl groups. Arch Biochem Biophys 1959; 82:70-77.
  31.  Buege JA, Aust SD. Microsomal lipid peroxidation. Method Enzymol 1978; 53:302-310.
  32.  Silva JP, Areias FM, Proença FM, Coutinho OP. Oxidative stress protection by newly synthesized nitrogen compounds with pharmacological potential. Life Sci 2006; 78:1256-1267.
  33.  Hosseinzadeh H, Sadeghnia HR. Effect of safranal, a constituent of Crocus sativus (saffron), on methyl methanesulfonate (MMS)-induced DNA damage in mouse organs: an alkaline single-cell gel electrophoresis (comet) assay. DNA Cell Biol  2007; 26:841-846.
  34.  da Rocha MD, Viegas FP, Campos HC, Nicastro PC, Fossaluzza PC, Fraga CA, et al. The role of natural products in the discovery of new drug candidates for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders II: Alzheimer's disease. CNS Neurol Disord Drug Targets  2011; 10:251-270.
  35.  Colle D, Hartwig JM, Soares FA, Farina M. Probucol modulates oxidative stress and excitotoxicity in Huntington's disease models       in vitro. Brain Res Bull 2012; 87:397-405.
  36.  Kalonia H, Mishra J, Kumar A. Targeting neuro-inflammatory cytokines and oxidative Stress by minocycline attenuates quinolinic-acid-induced Huntington's disease-like symptoms in rats. Neurotox Res 2012; 22:310-320.
  37.  Leipnitz G, Schumacher C, Scussiato K, Dalcin KB, Wannmacher CM, Wyse ATD, et al. Quinolinic acid reduces the antioxidant defenses in cerebral cortex of young rats. Int J Dev Neurosci  2005; 23:695-701.
  38.  Dizdaroglu M, Jaruga P. Mechanisms of free radical-induced damage to DNA. Free Radic Res  2012; 46:382-419.
  39.  Reynolds A, Laurie C, Mosley RL, Gendelman HE. Oxidative stress and the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders. Int Rev Neurobiol  2007; 82:297-325.
  40.  Ganzella M, Jardim FM, Boeck CR, Vendite D. Time course of oxidative events in the hippocampus following intracerebroventricular infusion of quinolinic acid in mice. Neurosci Res  2006; 55:397-402.
  41.  Pláteník J, Stopka P, Vejrazka M, Stípek S. Quinolinic acid-iron(ii) complexes: slow autoxidation, but enhanced hydroxyl radical production in the Fenton reaction. Free Radic Res 2001; 34:445-459.
  42.  Halliwell B. Oxidative stress and neurodegeneration: where are we now? J Neurochem 2006; 97:1634-1658.
  43.  Hariri AT, Moallem SA, Mahmoudi M, Hosseinzadeh H. The effect of crocin and safranal, constituents of saffron, against subacute effect          of diazinon on hematological and genotoxicity indices in rats. Phytomedicine 2011; 18:499-504.
  44.  Bharti S, Golechha M, Kumari S,               Siddiqui KM, Arya DS. Akt/GSK-3β/eNOS phosphorylation arbitrates safranal-induced myocardial protection against ischemia-reperfusion injury in rats. Eur J Nutr  2011; 51:719-727.
  45.  Hosseinzadeh H, Sadeghnia HR, Rahimi A. Effect of safranal on extracellular hippocampal levels of glutamate and aspartate during kainic acid treatment in anesthetized rats. Planta Med  2008; 74:1441-1445.
  46.  Brickell KL, Nicholson LFB, Waldvogel HJ, Faull RLM. Chemical and anatomical changes in the striatum and substantia nigra following quinolinic acid lesions in the striatum of the rat: a detailed time course of the cellular and GABAA receptor changes. J Chem Neuroanat 1999; 17:75-97.
  47.  Santamaría A, Salvatierra-Sánchez R, Vázquez-Román B, Santiago-López D, Villeda-Hernández J, Galván-Arzate S, et al. Protective effects of the antioxidant selenium on quinolinic acid-induced neurotoxicity in rats: in vitro and       in vivo studies. J Neurochem 2003; 86:479-488.
  48.  Ryu JK, Choi HB, McLarnona JG. Peripheral benzodiazepine receptor ligand PK11195 reduces microglial activation and neuronal death in quinolinic acid-injected rat striatum. Neurobiol Disease 2005; 20:550-561.
  49.  Ganzella M, Faraco RB, Almeida RF, Fernandes VF, Souza DO. Intracerebroventricular administration of inosine is anticonvulsant against quinolinic acid-induced seizures in mice: An effect independent of benzodiazepine and adenosine receptors. Pharmacol Biochem Behavior 2011; 100:271-274.
  50.  Sadeghnia HR, Cortez MA, Liu D, Hosseinzadeh H, Snead OC. Antiabsence effects of safranal in acute experimental seizure models: EEG and autoradiography. J Pharm Pharm Sci 2008; 11:1-14.
  51.  Iadecola C, Anrather J. The immunology of stroke: from mechanisms to translation. Nat Med 2011; 17:796-808.
  52.  Rogers J. Inflammation as a pathogenic mechanism in Alzheimer’s disease. Drug Res 1995; 45:439-442.
  53.  Braidy N, Grant R, Adams S, Brew BJ, Guillemin GJ. Mechanism for quinolinic acid cytotoxicity in human astrocytes and neurons. Neurotox Res 2009; 16:77-86.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Iranian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences
Volume 16, Issue 1 - Serial Number 1
SAFFRON SPECIAL ISSUE
January 2013
Pages 73-82