1. Mechoulam R, Hanuš L. Cannabidiol: An overview of some chemical and pharmacological aspects. Part I: chemical aspects. Chem Phys Lipids 2002; 121: 35-43.
2. Small E, Marcus D. Hemp: A new crop with new uses for North America. In: Trends in New Crops and New Uses (Edited by: J Janick and A Whipkey). ASHS Press. Proceedings of the Fifth National Symposium. 2001. p. 284-326.
3. Jardim C, Delgado-Charro MB. The regulatory environment surrounding Cannabis medicines in the EU, the USA, and Australia. Pharmaceutics 2025; 17: 635.
4. Dorbian I. CBD market could reach $20 billion by 2024, Says new study. Forbes 2019.
5. Nelson KM, Bisson J, Singh G, Graham JG, Chen SN, Friesen JB, et al. The essential medicinal chemistry of cannabidiol (CBD). J Med Chem 2020; 63: 12137-12155.
6. Johnson K, Weldon AJ, Burmeister MA. Differential effects of Cannabis constituents on schizophrenia-related psychosis: A rationale for incorporating cannabidiol into a schizophrenia therapeutic regimen. Front Psychiatry 2024; 15: 1386263.
7. Yeshurun M, Shpilberg O, Herscovici C, Shargian L, Dreyer J, Peck A, et al. Cannabidiol for the prevention of graft-versus-host-disease after allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation: Results of a phase II study. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 2015; 21: 1770-1775.
8.Portman A, Bukovich E, Bissex J, Flanagan M, Pojednic R. The perceived effectiveness of cannabidiol on adult women with inflammatory bowel disease. Medicina 2024; 60: 2059.
9. Esmaeli M, Dehabadi MD, Khaleghi AA. Cannabidiol as a novel therapeutic agent in breast cancer: Evidence from literature. BMC Cancer 2025; 25: 772.
10. Mitelpunkt A, Kramer U, Hausman Kedem M, Zilbershot Fink E, Orbach R, Chernuha V, et al. The safety, tolerability, and effectiveness of PTL-101, an oral cannabidiol formulation, in pediatric intractable epilepsy: A phase II, open-label, single-center study. Epilepsy Behav 2019; 98: 233-237.
11. Millar SA, Maguire RF, Yates AS, O’Sullivan SE. Towards better delivery of cannabidiol (CBD). Pharmaceuticals 2020; 13: 219.
12. Millar SA, Stone NL, Yates AS, O’Sullivan SE. A systematic review on the pharmacokinetics of cannabidiol in humans. Front Pharmacol 2018; 9: 1365.
13. Mlost J, Bryk M, Starowicz K. Cannabidiol for pain treatment: Focus on pharmacology and mechanism of action. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21: 8870.
14. Hossain KR, Alghalayini A, Valenzuela SM. Current challenges and opportunities for improved cannabidiol solubility. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24: 14514.
15. Silmore LH, Willmer AR, Capparelli EV, Rosania GR. Food effects on the formulation, dosing, and administration of cannabidiol (CBD) in humans: A systematic review of clinical studies. Pharmacotherapy 2021; 41: 405-420.
16. Pesta DH, Angadi SS, Burtscher M, Roberts CK. The effects of caffeine, nicotine, ethanol, and tetrahydrocannabinol on exercise performance. Nutr Metab (Lond) 2013; 10: 71.
17. Wang X, Zhang H, Liu Y, Xu Y, Yang B, Li H, et al. An overview on synthetic and biological activities of cannabidiol (CBD) and its derivatives. Bioorg Chem 2023; 140: 106810.
18. Lee S, Lee Y, Kim Y, Kim H, Rhyu H, Yoon K, et al. Beneficial effects of cannabidiol from Cannabis. Appl Biol Chem 2024; 67: 32.
19. Blessing EM, Steenkamp MM, Manzanares J, Marmar CR. Cannabidiol as a potential treatment for anxiety disorders. Neurotherapeutics 2015; 12: 825-836.
20. Lowe DJE, Sasiadek JD, Coles AS, George TP. Cannabis and mental illness: A review. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2019; 269: 107-120.
21. McGuire P, Robson P, Cubala WJ, Vasile D, Morrison PD, Barron R, et al. Cannabidiol (CBD) as an adjunctive therapy in schizophrenia: A multicenter randomized controlled trial. Am J Psychiatry 2018; 175: 225-231.
22. Silvestro S, Mammana S, Cavalli E, Bramanti P, Mazzon E. Use of cannabidiol in the treatment of epilepsy: Efficacy and security in clinical trials. Molecules 2019; 24: 1459.
23. Hurd YL, Yoon M, Manini AF, Hernandez S, Olmedo R, Ostman M, et al. Early phase in the development of cannabidiol as a treatment for addiction: Opioid relapse takes initial center stage. Neurotherapeutics 2015; 12: 807-815.
24. Ferro R, Adamska A, Lattanzio R, Mavrommati I, Edling CE, Arifin SA, et al. GPR55 signalling promotes proliferation of pancreatic cancer cells and tumour growth in mice, and its inhibition increases effects of gemcitabine. Oncogene 2018; 37: 6368-6382.
25. El-Remessy AB, Al-Shabrawey M, Khalifa Y, Tsai NT, Caldwell RB, Liou GI. Neuroprotective and blood-retinal barrier-preserving effects of cannabidiol in experimental diabetes. Am J Pathol 2006; 168: 235-244.
26. Britch SC, Babalonis S, Walsh SL. Cannabidiol: Pharmacology and therapeutic targets. Psychopharmacology 2021; 238: 9-28.
27. Buchholz H, Uebbing K, Maus S, Pektor S, Afahaene N, Weyer-Elberich V, et al. Whole-body biodistribution of the cannabinoid type 1 receptor ligand [18F] MK-9470 in the rat. Nucl Med Biol 2017; 52: 63-69.
28. Núñez E, Benito C, Pazos MR, Barbachano A, Fajardo O, González S, et al. Cannabinoid CB2 receptors are expressed by perivascular microglial cells in the human brain: An immunohistochemical study. Synapse 2004; 53: 208-213.
29. Labiris NR, Dolovich MB. Pulmonary drug delivery. Part I: Physiological factors affecting therapeutic effectiveness of aerosolized medications. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2003; 56: 588-599.
30. He S, Gui J, Xiong K, Chen M, Gao H, Fu Y. A roadmap to pulmonary delivery strategies for the treatment of infectious lung diseases. J Nanobiotechnol 2022; 20: 101.
31. Ramírez-Rigo MV, Guzmán ML, Olivera ME. Pulmonary drug delivery. In: The ADME Encyclopedia: A Comprehensive Guide on Biopharmacy and Pharmacokinetics (Edited by A Talevi). Springer Cham. 2022. p. 1029-1040.
32. Labiris NR, Dolovich MB. Pulmonary drug delivery. Part II: The role of inhalant delivery devices and drug formulations in therapeutic effectiveness of aerosolized medications. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2003; 56: 600-612.
33. Wang B, Wang L, Yang Q, Zhang Y, Qinglai T, Yang X, et al. Pulmonary inhalation for disease treatment: Basic research and clinical translations. Mater Today Bio 2024; 25: 100966.
34. Hložek T, Uttl L, Kadeřábek L, Balíková M, Lhotková E, Horsley RR, et al. Pharmacokinetic and behavioural profile of THC, CBD, and THC+CBD combination after pulmonary, oral, and subcutaneous administration in rats and confirmation of conversion in vivo of CBD to THC. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2017; 27: 1223-1237.
35. Schwotzer D, Kulpa J, Trexler K, Dye W, Jantzi J, Irshad H, et al. Pharmacokinetics of cannabidiol in Sprague-Dawley rats after oral and pulmonary administration. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2023; 8: 360-373.
36. Bergeria CL, Spindle TR, Cone EJ, Sholler D, Goffi E, Mitchell JM, et al. Pharmacokinetic profile of ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol and metabolites in blood following vaporization and oral ingestion of cannabidiol products. J Anal Toxicol 2022; 46: 583-591.
37. Meyer P, Langos M, Brenneisen R. Human pharmacokinetics and adverse effects of pulmonary and intravenous THC-CBD formulations. Med Cannabis Cannabinoids 2018; 1: 36-43.
38. FDA approves new indication for drug containing an active ingredient derived from Cannabis to treat seizures in rare genetic disease. Available from https://www.fda.gov/news-events/public-health-focus/fda-regulation-cannabis-and-cannabis-derived-products-including-cannabidiol-cbd.
39. Devinsky O, Kraft K, Rusch L, Fein M, Leone-Bay A. Improved bioavailability with dry powder cannabidiol inhalation: A phase 1 clinical study. J Pharm Sci 2021; 110: 3946-3952.
40. Spindle TR, Cone EJ, Goffi E, Weerts EM, Mitchell JM, Winecker RE, et al. Pharmacodynamic effects of vaporized and oral cannabidiol (CBD) and vaporized CBD-dominant cannabis in infrequent cannabis users. Drug Alcohol Depend 2020; 211: 107937.
41. Srichana T, Chunhachaichana C, Suedee R, Sawatdee S, Changsan N. Oral inhalation of cannabidiol delivered from a metered dose inhaler to alleviate cytokine production induced by SARS-CoV-2 and pollutants. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 2022; 76: 103805.
42. Morgan CJA, Das RK, Joye A, Curran HV, Kamboj SK. Cannabidiol reduces cigarette consumption in tobacco smokers: Preliminary findings. Addict Behav 2013; 38: 2433-2436.
43. Ugwoke MI, Verbeke N, Kinget R. The biopharmaceutical aspects of nasal mucoadhesive drug delivery. J Pharm Pharmacol 2001; 53: 3-21.
44. Arora P, Sharma S, Garg S. Permeability issues in nasal drug delivery. Drug Discov Today 2002; 7: 967-975.
45. Pagar SA, Shinkar DM, Saudagar RB. A review on intranasal drug delivery system. J Adv Pharm Edu & Res 2013; 3: 333-346.
46. Chung S, Peters JM, Detyniecki K, Tatum W, Rabinowicz AL, Carrazana E. The nose has it: Opportunities and challenges for intranasal drug administration for neurologic conditions including seizure clusters. Epilepsy Behav Rep 2023; 21: 100581.
47. O’Sullivan SE, Jensen SS, Nikolajsen GN, Ziegler Bruun H, Bhuller R, Hoeng J. The therapeutic potential of purified cannabidiol. J Cannabis Res 2023; 5: 21.
48. Ahmed B, Rizwanullah M, Mir SR, Akhtar MS, Amin S. Development of cannabidiol nanoemulsion for direct nose to brain delivery: Statistical optimization, in vitro and in vivo evaluation. Biomed Mater 2022; 17: 065009.
49. Polidoro D, Temmerman R, Devreese M, Charalambous M, Van Ham L, Cornelis I, et al. Pharmacokinetics of cannabidiol following intranasal, intrarectal, and oral administration in healthy dogs. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9: 899940.
50. Upadhyay G, Fihurka O, Patel P, Sanchez-Ramos J. Quantitation of cannabidiol (CBD) in brain regions and plasma following intranasal administration of a CBD nanoformulation. J Cannabis Res 2025; 7: 63.
51. Matarazzo AP, Elisei LMS, Carvalho FC, Bonfílio R, Ruela ALM, Galdino G, et al. Mucoadhesive nanostructured lipid carriers as a cannabidiol nasal delivery system for the treatment of neuropathic pain. Eur J Pharm Sci 2021; 159: 105698.
52. Pang L, Zhu S, Ma J, Zhu L, Liu Y, Ou G, et al. Intranasal temperature-sensitive hydrogels of cannabidiol inclusion complex for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Acta Pharm Sin B 2021; 11: 2031-2047.
53. Changsan N, Sawatdee S, Suedee R, Chunhachaichana C, Srichana T. Aqueous cannabidiol β-cyclodextrin complexed polymeric micelle nasal spray to attenuate in vitro and ex vivo SARS-CoV-2-induced cytokine storms. Int J Pharm 2023; 640: 123035.
54. Zgair A, Wong JCM, Lee JB, Mistry J, Sivak O, Wasan KM, et al. Dietary fats and pharmaceutical lipid excipients increase systemic exposure to orally administered cannabis and cannabis-based medicines. Am J Transl Res 2016; 8: 3448-3459.
55. Feng W, Qin C, Chu Y, Berton M, Lee JB, Zgair A, et al. Natural sesame oil is superior to pre-digested lipid formulations and purified triglycerides in promoting the intestinal lymphatic transport and systemic bioavailability of cannabidiol. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2021; 162: 43-49.
56. Feng W, Qin C, Cipolla E, Lee JB, Zgair A, Chu Y, et al. Inclusion of medium-chain triglyceride in lipid-based formulation of cannabidiol facilitates micellar solubilization in vitro, but in vivo performance remains superior with pure sesame oil vehicle. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13: 1349.
57. Feng W, Qin C, Abdelrazig S, Bai Z, Raji M, Darwish R, et al. Vegetable oils composition affects the intestinal lymphatic transport and systemic bioavailability of co-administered lipophilic drug cannabidiol. Int J Pharm 2022; 624: 121947.
58. Sánchez de Medina A, Serrano‐Rodríguez JM, Díez de Castro E, García‐Valverde MT, Saitua A, Becero M, et al. Pharmacokinetics and oral bioavailability of cannabidiol in horses after intravenous and oral administration with oil and micellar formulations. Equine Vet J 2023; 55: 1094-1103.
59. Cherniakov I, Izgelov D, Domb AJ, Hoffman A. The effect of pro nanolipospheres (PNL) formulation containing natural absorption enhancers on the oral bioavailability of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) in a rat model. Eur J Pharm Sci 2017; 109: 21-30.
60. Kok LY, Bannigan P, Sanaee F, Evans JC, Dunne M, Regenold M, et al. Development and pharmacokinetic evaluation of a self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system for the oral delivery of cannabidiol. Eur J Pharm Sci 2022; 168: 106058.
61. Izgelov D, Shmoeli E, Domb AJ, Hoffman A. The effect of medium chain and long chain triglycerides incorporated in self-nano emulsifying drug delivery systems on oral absorption of cannabinoids in rats. Int J Pharm 2020; 580: 119201.
62. Wang C, Dong C, Lu Y, Freeman K, Wang C, Guo M. Digestion behavior, in vitro and in vivo bioavailability of cannabidiol in emulsions stabilized by whey protein-maltodextrin conjugate: Impact of carrier oil. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2023; 223: 113154.
63. Brookes A, Jewell A, Feng W, Bradshaw TD, Butler J, Gershkovich P. Oral lipid-based formulations alter delivery of cannabidiol to different anatomical regions in the brain. Int J Pharm 2023; 635: 122651.
64. Shreiber-Livne I, Sulimani L, Shapira A, Procaccia S, Meiri D, Sosnik A. Poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(epsilon-caprolactone) nanoparticles as a platform for the improved oral delivery of cannabidiol. Drug Deliv Transl Res 2023; 13: 3192-3203.
65. Wang C, Wang J, Sun Y, Freeman K, Mchenry MA, Wang C, et al. Enhanced stability and oral bioavailability of cannabidiol in zein and whey protein composite nanoparticles by a modified anti-solvent approach. Foods 2022; 11: 376.
66. Majimbi M, Brook E, Galettis P, Eden E, Al-Salami H, Mooranian A, et al. Sodium alginate microencapsulation improves the short-term oral bioavailability of cannabidiol when administered with deoxycholic acid. PLoS One 2021; 16: e0243858.
67. O’Sullivan SE, Jensen SS, Kolli AR, Nikolajsen GN, Bruun HZ, Hoeng J. Strategies to improve cannabidiol bioavailability and drug delivery. Pharmaceuticals 2024; 17: 244.
68. Atsmon J, Heffetz D, Deutsch L, Deutsch F, Sacks H. Single‐dose pharmacokinetics of oral cannabidiol following administration of PTL101: A new formulation based on gelatin matrix pellets technology. Clin Pharmacol Drug Dev 2018; 7: 751-758.
69. Mahmoudinoodezh H, Telukutla SR, Bhangu SK, Bachari A, Cavalieri F, Mantri N. The transdermal delivery of therapeutic cannabinoids. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14: 438.
70. Varadi G, Zhu Z, Crowley HD, Moulin M, Dey R, Lewis ED, et al. Examining the systemic bioavailability of cannabidiol and tetrahydrocannabinol from a novel transdermal delivery system in healthy adults: A single-arm, open-label, exploratory study. Adv Ther 2023; 40: 282-293.
71. Makhakhe L. Topical cannabidiol (CBD) in skin pathology–A comprehensive review and prospects for new therapeutic opportunities. S Afr Fam Pract 2022; 64: a5493.
72. Hashim PW, Cohen JL, Pompei DT, Goldenberg G. Topical cannabinoids in dermatology. Cutis 2017; 100: 50-52.
73. de Carvalho-Guimarães FB, Correa KL, de Souza TP, Rodriguez Amado JR, Ribeiro-Costa RM, Silva-Júnior JOC. A review of pickering emulsions: Perspectives and applications. Pharmaceuticals 2022; 15: 1413.
74. Sharkawy A, Silva AM, Rodrigues F, Barreiro F, Rodrigues A. Pickering emulsions stabilized with chitosan/collagen peptides nanoparticles as green topical delivery vehicles for cannabidiol (CBD). Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 2021; 631: 127677.
75. Ashara KC, Paun JS, Soniwala MM, Chavda JR, Mendapara VP, Mori NM. Microemulgel: An overwhelming approach to improve therapeutic action of drug moiety. Saudi Pharm J 2016; 24: 452-457.
76. Kushwah P, Sharma PK, Koka SS, Gupta A, Sharma R, Darwhekar GN. Microemulgel: A novel approach for topical drug delivery. J Appl Pharm Res 2021; 9: 14-20.
77. Vanti G, Grifoni L, Bergonzi MC, Antiga E, Montefusco F, Caproni M, et al. Development and optimisation of biopharmaceutical properties of a new microemulgel of cannabidiol for locally-acting dermatological delivery. Int J Pharm 2021; 607: 121036.
78. Gonzalez-Cuevas G, Martin-Fardon R, Kerr TM, Stouffer DG, Parsons LH, Hammell DC, et al. Unique treatment potential of cannabidiol for the prevention of relapse to drug use: Preclinical proof of principle. Neuropsychopharmacol 2018; 43: 2036-2045.
79. Liput DJ, Hammell DC, Stinchcomb AL, Nixon K. Transdermal delivery of cannabidiol attenuates binge alcohol-induced neurodegeneration in a rodent model of an alcohol use disorder. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2013; 111: 120-127.
80. Hammell DC, Zhang LP, Ma F, Abshire SM, McIlwrath SL, Stinchcomb AL, et al. Transdermal cannabidiol reduces inflammation and pain‐related behaviours in a rat model of arthritis. Eur J Pain 2016; 20: 936-948.
81. Momekova D, Danov Y, Momekov G, Ivanov E, Petrov P. Polysaccharide cryogels containing β-cyclodextrin for the delivery of cannabidiol. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13: 1774.
82. Momekova D, Ivanov E, Konstantinov S, Ublekov F, Petrov PD. Nanocomposite cryogel carriers from 2-hydroxyethyl cellulose network and cannabidiol-loaded polymeric micelles for sustained topical delivery. Polymers 2020; 12: 1172.
83. Chelliah MP, Zinn Z, Khuu P, Teng JMC. Self‐initiated use of topical cannabidiol oil for epidermolysis bullosa. Pediatr Dermatol 2018; 35: e224-e227.
84. Radwan-Pragłowska J, Janus L, Piątkowski M, Sierakowska A, Szajna E, Matýsek D, et al. Development of stimuli-responsive chitosan/ZnO NPs transdermal systems for controlled cannabidiol delivery. Polymers 2021; 13: 211.
85. Eskander JP, Spall J, Spall A, Shah RV, Kaye AD. Cannabidiol (CBD) as a treatment of acute and chronic back pain: A case series and literature review. J Opioid Manag 2020; 16: 215-218.
86. Palmieri B, Laurino C, Vadalà M. A therapeutic effect of cbd-enriched ointment in inflammatory skin diseases and cutaneous scars. Clin Ter 2019; 170: e93-e99.
87. Patel VF, Liu F, Brown MB. Advances in oral transmucosal drug delivery. J Control Release 2011; 153: 106-116.
88. Hosseini A, McLachlan AJ, Lickliter JD. A phase I trial of the safety, tolerability and pharmacokinetics of cannabidiol administered as single‐dose oil solution and single and multiple doses of a sublingual wafer in healthy volunteers. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2021; 87: 2070-2077.
)